THOUGHTS AND COMMENTARY
Commentaries and essays on a variety of topics including parenting, the capacity for love, emotions, mindfulness and social issues.
A Book Excerpt From
The Road to Neuroplasticity and Change to Heal Trauma, Improve Cognitive Capacity and Maximize Performance
ABOUT THE BOOK
A MOTIVATIONAL GLOSSARY
See Also:
Achievement motivation: The emphasis on performance seeks to integrate formerly separate approaches as need for achievement with, for example, social motives like dominance. Personality is intimately tied to performance and achievement motivation, including such characteristics as tolerance for risk, fear of failure, and others.
Achievement Motivation Inventory: assesses three factors (in 17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns, including working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks with much difficulty, and attributing success to effort.
Activation: involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.
Approach motivation (i.e., incentive salience): defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is rewardedor results in a positive or desirable outcome.
Arousal Levels: The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal. A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors.
Attribution theory: describes motivation to formulate explanatory reasons for events one experiences and how these beliefs affect their emotions and motivations. Attributions are predicted to alter behavior, for instance attributing failure on a test to unpreparedness might generate shame and motivate harder work.
Avoidance motivation (i.e., aversive salience): when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or results in a negative or undesirable outcome
Classical or respondent conditioning: behaviour is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be unconditioned, such as in-born reflexes, or learned, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situation
Cognition-Process of knowing or being knowledgeable
Cognitive dissonance: occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions.
Cognitive theories: defines motivation in terms of how people think about situations. Cognitive theories of motivation include goal-setting theory and expectancy theory.
Competence: Showing that you have the necessary skills to perform a task.
Drive or desire: described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food or a more subtle drive might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a pleasing manner.
Drive theory: concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger and thirst. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced.
Effort-to-performance expectancy: (E®P): An individual's perceived probability that a particular level of effort will result in a particular level of performance.
Egoistic needs: the second-highest order of needs. The first type refers to one's self-esteem, which encompasses self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge. The second type of needs deals with reputation, status, recognition, and respect from colleagues. Egoistic needs are much more difficult to satisfy.
Equity theory: A process motivation theory that explains how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources.
ERG theory: theory of three instinctive needs arranged in a hierarchy, in which people progress to the next higher need when a lower one is fulfilled, and regress to a lower need if unable to fulfil a higher need.
Existence needs: A person's physiological and physically related safety needs, such as the need for food, shelter, and safe working conditions.
Expectancy theory: explains the behavior process in which an individual selects a behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is made in relation to their goal.
Expectancy theory equation: equation for this theory goes as follows:
M = E x I x V
Extinction: can be intentional or unintentional and happens when you ignore an undesired behavior.
Extrinsic motivation: influences outside of the individual. Usually extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehaviour. Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.
Extrinsic Motivation Types:
Feedback: a response to an event that can be negative or positive.
Flow theory: refers to desirable subjective state a person experiences when completely involved in some challenging activity that matches the individual skill. It’s a state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience is so enjoyable that one will continue to do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it.
Freudian motivation theory: says unconscious psychological forces, such as desires and emotions, shape an individual's behavior. Freud believed that the human psyche could be divided into the conscious and unconscious mind. The ego, the representation of the conscious mind, is made up of thoughts, memories, perceptions, and feelings that give a person their sense of identity and personality.
Frustration-regression process: Process when one is unable to satisfy a higher need and becomes frustrated and regress to the next lower need level.
Goal setting: The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives.
Goals: The immediate or ultimate objectives that employees are trying to accomplish from their work effort.
Goal Orientation: The rationale given for participating in a specific task.
Goal-setting theory: based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a rewardin itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity.
Growth needs: A person's self-esteem through personal achievement as well as self-actualization.
Incentive theory: a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a compensation. Compensation can be tangible or intangible,
Implicit learning: The experiential phenomenon of acquiring information about relationships in the environment without any conscious attempt to do so.
Intensity: the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks intensity, while the second pursues his educational goals with greater intensity.
Intrinsic motivation: the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze one's capacity, or to observe and to achieve a goal - for example, developing one's own understanding or giving up smoking. It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration
Instincts: The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behavior. Psychologists have proposed a number of basic human drives that motivate behavior. Such instincts might include biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival such as fear, cleanliness, and love.
Job satisfaction: A person's attitude (beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioural intentions) regarding the job and work context.
Learned industriousness theory: an acquired ability to sustain the physical or mental effort. It can also be described as being persistent despite the building up subjective fatigue. This is the ability to push through to the end for a greater or bigger reward. The more significant or more rewarding the incentive, the more the individual is willing to do to get to the end of a task.
Level of Aspiration: Goals or standards set by an individual that will determine performance or success.
Management-by-objectives (MBO): A formal, participative goal-setting process in which organizational objectives are cascaded down to work units and individual employees.
Mastery goals: Goals that focus on increasing ones competence.
Mental fatigue: being tired, exhausted, or not functioning effectively. Not wanting to proceed further with the current mental course of action, this in contrast with physical fatigue, because in most cases no physical activity is done
Motive: A person’s cause for participating in a specific event.
Motivation: The internal forces that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of a person's voluntary choice of behavior. An internal or external drive that prompts a person to action;
The Motivation Matrix: splits motivation into two dimensions: Internal vs. external and positive vs. negative. The resulting four quadrants can each provide motivation, but will produce different experiences and outcomes.
Motivational theory: defines Motivation as the desire for a particular outcome, Expectancy or self-efficacy is the probability of success, Value is the reward associated with the outcome, Impulsiveness is the individual's sensitivity to delay and Delayis the time to realization.
Motives and motivation: motivation is the psychological process that refers to general behavior. Motive, on the other hand, is the concrete cause of said behavior. Thus, motivation is the process itself and the motive is the concrete reason for taking action.
Motivating operations: factors that affect learned behaviour in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learned behaviour that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus.
Motivator-hygiene theory: theory proposes that employees are primarily motivated by growth and esteem needs such as recognition, responsibility, advancement, achievement, and personal growth.
Need for achievement: A learning need that causes people to want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own efforts.
Need for affiliation: A desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.
Need for power: A desire to control one's environment, including people and material resources.
Needs: Deficiencies that energize or trigger behaviours to satisfy those needs.
Needs hierarchy theory: motivation theory of five instinctive needs arranged in a hierarchy in which people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified.
Negative reinforcement: occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or stimulusis removed or prevented from happening.
Observational learning: Learning that takes place when watching the actions of others.
Outcomes: The consequence of an action.
Operant conditioning: the type and frequency of behaviour is determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behavior will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behavior (or a similar one). If the behavior is followed by something undesirable (a punisher), the behavior is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, removal of a stimulus directly following the behavior might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behavior in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment)
Perceived control (Locus of control): The belief for some that there is a connection between an individuals behavior and outcome (internals) and the belief of others that there is not a relationship between behavior and outcome.
Persistence: the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be taking more psychology coursesin order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
Performance goal: Goal that focuses on being the best, getting the top grade, and/or making others believe you are smart, etc.
Performance-to-outcome expectancy: An individual's perceived probability that a specific behaviour or performance level will lead to specific outcomes.
Physiological needs: the most important level of needs. These fundamental requirements include food, rest, shelter, and exercise.
Positive reinforcement: occurs when a desirable event or stimulusis presented as a consequence of a behavior and the chance that this behavior will manifest in similar environments increases.
Priming: a phenomenon, often used as an experimental technique, whereby a specific stimulus sensitizes the subject to later presentation of a similar stimulus. Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli, resulting from prior exposure to related visual or audio messages.
Procrastination: the act to voluntarily postpone or delay an intended course of action despite anticipating that you will be worse off because of that delay. Procrastination can be seen as a defense mechanism. Because it is less demanding to simply avoid a task instead of dealing with the possibility of failure, procrastinators choose the short-term gratification of delaying a task over the long-term uncertainty of undertaking it. Procrastination can also be a justification for when the user ultimately has no choice but to undertake a task and performs below their standard.
Procrastinator Types: The first are chronic procrastinators whom exhibit a combination of qualities. "Arousal" types are self-proclaimed "pressure performers" and relish the exhilaration of completing tasks close to the deadline. "Avoider" types procrastinate to avoid the outcome of whatever task they are pushing back - whether it be a potential failure or success. "Avoider" types are usually very self-conscious and care deeply about other people's opinions. Finally, "Decisional" procrastinators avoid making decisions in order to protect themselves from the responsibility that follows the outcome of events
Primary reinforcer: sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing with a different stimulusin order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival.
Pull motivation: is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much stronger. Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity to travel.
Push motivations: are those who push themselves towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure, and social interaction.
Reinforcers: serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end.
Relatedness needs: A person's need to interact with other people, receive public recognition, and feel secure around people
Safety needs: include “protection against danger, threat, deprivation.”
Satisfaction-progression process: A process whereby people become increasingly motivated to fulfil a higher need as a lower need is gratified.
Secondary reinforcer: sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulusthat functions as a reinforcer.
Secondary motives: related to people’s general growth after a learning experience. They develop through the interaction between individuals. Just like primary motives, they activate and direct behavior. They aren’t necessary for human survival, but they play an important role in emotional development and are unique to human beings. Achievement, belonging, and power are examples of secondary motives.
Self-fulfillment needs: recognition of one's full potential, areas for self-improvement, and the opportunity for creativity.
Self-efficacy: A person's belief that he or she has the ability, motivation, and resources to complete a task successfully.
Sixteen basic desires: these desires motivate our actions and define our personalities:
Social-Cognitive Theory: Theory that discusses the social effects on behavior.
Social needs: refers to the desire for acceptance, affiliation, reciprocal friendships and love.
Temporal Motivation Theory: a broad, integrative theory of motivation that is composed of other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting.
Valence: The anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels towards an outcome.
Value: The importance an individual places on learning.
Achievement Motivation Inventory: assesses three factors (in 17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success. This motivation has repeatedly been linked with adaptive motivational patterns, including working hard, a willingness to pick learning tasks with much difficulty, and attributing success to effort.
Activation: involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.
Approach motivation (i.e., incentive salience): defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is rewardedor results in a positive or desirable outcome.
Arousal Levels: The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal. A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities while those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking behaviors.
Attribution theory: describes motivation to formulate explanatory reasons for events one experiences and how these beliefs affect their emotions and motivations. Attributions are predicted to alter behavior, for instance attributing failure on a test to unpreparedness might generate shame and motivate harder work.
Avoidance motivation (i.e., aversive salience): when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or results in a negative or undesirable outcome
Classical or respondent conditioning: behaviour is understood as responses triggered by certain environmental or physical stimuli. They can be unconditioned, such as in-born reflexes, or learned, which then becomes a conditioned stimulus. In relation to motivation, classical conditioning might be seen as one explanation as to why an individual performs certain responses and behaviors in certain situation
Cognition-Process of knowing or being knowledgeable
Cognitive dissonance: occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions.
Cognitive theories: defines motivation in terms of how people think about situations. Cognitive theories of motivation include goal-setting theory and expectancy theory.
Competence: Showing that you have the necessary skills to perform a task.
Drive or desire: described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to originate within the individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food or a more subtle drive might be the desire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a pleasing manner.
Drive theory: concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger and thirst. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced.
Effort-to-performance expectancy: (E®P): An individual's perceived probability that a particular level of effort will result in a particular level of performance.
Egoistic needs: the second-highest order of needs. The first type refers to one's self-esteem, which encompasses self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge. The second type of needs deals with reputation, status, recognition, and respect from colleagues. Egoistic needs are much more difficult to satisfy.
Equity theory: A process motivation theory that explains how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources.
ERG theory: theory of three instinctive needs arranged in a hierarchy, in which people progress to the next higher need when a lower one is fulfilled, and regress to a lower need if unable to fulfil a higher need.
Existence needs: A person's physiological and physically related safety needs, such as the need for food, shelter, and safe working conditions.
Expectancy theory: explains the behavior process in which an individual selects a behavior option over another, and why/how this decision is made in relation to their goal.
Expectancy theory equation: equation for this theory goes as follows:
M = E x I x V
- M (Motivation) is the amount an individual will be motivated by the condition or environment they placed themselves in.
- E (Expectancy) is the person's perception that effort will result in performance.
- I (Instrumentality) is the person's perception that performance will be rewarded or punished.
- V (Valence) is the perceived amount of the reward or punishment that will result from the performance.
Extinction: can be intentional or unintentional and happens when you ignore an undesired behavior.
Extrinsic motivation: influences outside of the individual. Usually extrinsic motivation is used to attain outcomes that a person wouldn't get from intrinsic motivation. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehaviour. Competition is an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives.
Extrinsic Motivation Types:
- External regulation: determined by external punishment or reward.
- Introjected regulation: This form arises when someone has internalized regulations but does not fully accept them as their own. They may comply for self-esteem reasons or social acceptability - essentially internal reasons but externally driven.
- Identified regulation: when the individual consciously perceives the actions as valuable.
- Integrated regulation: action has been internalized and is aligned with the individual's values, beliefs and is perceived as necessary for their wellbeing. However this is still classified as extrinsic motivation as it is still driven by external processes and not by inherent enjoyment for the task itself.
Feedback: a response to an event that can be negative or positive.
Flow theory: refers to desirable subjective state a person experiences when completely involved in some challenging activity that matches the individual skill. It’s a state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience is so enjoyable that one will continue to do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it.
Freudian motivation theory: says unconscious psychological forces, such as desires and emotions, shape an individual's behavior. Freud believed that the human psyche could be divided into the conscious and unconscious mind. The ego, the representation of the conscious mind, is made up of thoughts, memories, perceptions, and feelings that give a person their sense of identity and personality.
Frustration-regression process: Process when one is unable to satisfy a higher need and becomes frustrated and regress to the next lower need level.
Goal setting: The process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives.
Goals: The immediate or ultimate objectives that employees are trying to accomplish from their work effort.
Goal Orientation: The rationale given for participating in a specific task.
Goal-setting theory: based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a rewardin itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity.
Growth needs: A person's self-esteem through personal achievement as well as self-actualization.
Incentive theory: a specific theory of motivation, derived partly from behaviorist principles of reinforcement, which concerns an incentive or motive to do something. The most common incentive would be a compensation. Compensation can be tangible or intangible,
Implicit learning: The experiential phenomenon of acquiring information about relationships in the environment without any conscious attempt to do so.
Intensity: the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks intensity, while the second pursues his educational goals with greater intensity.
Intrinsic motivation: the self-desire to seek out new things and new challenges, to analyze one's capacity, or to observe and to achieve a goal - for example, developing one's own understanding or giving up smoking. It is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for consideration
Instincts: The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are fixed and inborn patterns of behavior. Psychologists have proposed a number of basic human drives that motivate behavior. Such instincts might include biological instincts that are important for an organism's survival such as fear, cleanliness, and love.
Job satisfaction: A person's attitude (beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioural intentions) regarding the job and work context.
Learned industriousness theory: an acquired ability to sustain the physical or mental effort. It can also be described as being persistent despite the building up subjective fatigue. This is the ability to push through to the end for a greater or bigger reward. The more significant or more rewarding the incentive, the more the individual is willing to do to get to the end of a task.
Level of Aspiration: Goals or standards set by an individual that will determine performance or success.
Management-by-objectives (MBO): A formal, participative goal-setting process in which organizational objectives are cascaded down to work units and individual employees.
Mastery goals: Goals that focus on increasing ones competence.
Mental fatigue: being tired, exhausted, or not functioning effectively. Not wanting to proceed further with the current mental course of action, this in contrast with physical fatigue, because in most cases no physical activity is done
Motive: A person’s cause for participating in a specific event.
Motivation: The internal forces that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of a person's voluntary choice of behavior. An internal or external drive that prompts a person to action;
- The ability to initiate and persist toward a chosen objective;
- Putting 100% of your time, effort, energy, and focus into your goal attainment;
- Being able to pursue change in the face of obstacles, boredom, fatigue, stress, and the desire to do other things;
- The determination to resist ingrained and unhealthy patterns and habits;
- Doing everything you can to make the changes you want in your life.
The Motivation Matrix: splits motivation into two dimensions: Internal vs. external and positive vs. negative. The resulting four quadrants can each provide motivation, but will produce different experiences and outcomes.
- Internal-positive: Challenge, desire, passion, satisfaction, self-validation (likely outcome: successful change, fulfillment).
- External-positive: Recognition and appreciation from others, financial rewards, (likely outcome: some change, partial fulfillment, dependent on others for continued change and good feelings).
- Internal-negative: Threat, fear of failure, inadequacy, insecurity (likely outcome: some change, possible relapse).
- External-negative: Fear of loss of job or relationship, insufficient respect from others, financial or social pressures, pressure from significant others, unstable life (likely outcome: some success, high risk of relapse)
Motivational theory: defines Motivation as the desire for a particular outcome, Expectancy or self-efficacy is the probability of success, Value is the reward associated with the outcome, Impulsiveness is the individual's sensitivity to delay and Delayis the time to realization.
Motives and motivation: motivation is the psychological process that refers to general behavior. Motive, on the other hand, is the concrete cause of said behavior. Thus, motivation is the process itself and the motive is the concrete reason for taking action.
Motivating operations: factors that affect learned behaviour in a certain context. MOs have two effects: a value-altering effect, which increases or decreases the efficiency of a reinforcer, and a behavior-altering effect, which modifies learned behaviour that has previously been punished or reinforced by a particular stimulus.
Motivator-hygiene theory: theory proposes that employees are primarily motivated by growth and esteem needs such as recognition, responsibility, advancement, achievement, and personal growth.
Need for achievement: A learning need that causes people to want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals through their own efforts.
Need for affiliation: A desire to seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.
Need for power: A desire to control one's environment, including people and material resources.
Needs: Deficiencies that energize or trigger behaviours to satisfy those needs.
Needs hierarchy theory: motivation theory of five instinctive needs arranged in a hierarchy in which people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified.
Negative reinforcement: occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or stimulusis removed or prevented from happening.
Observational learning: Learning that takes place when watching the actions of others.
Outcomes: The consequence of an action.
Operant conditioning: the type and frequency of behaviour is determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behavior, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behavior will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behavior (or a similar one). If the behavior is followed by something undesirable (a punisher), the behavior is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, removal of a stimulus directly following the behavior might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behavior in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment)
Perceived control (Locus of control): The belief for some that there is a connection between an individuals behavior and outcome (internals) and the belief of others that there is not a relationship between behavior and outcome.
Persistence: the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of persistence would be taking more psychology coursesin order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investment of time, energy, and resources.
Performance goal: Goal that focuses on being the best, getting the top grade, and/or making others believe you are smart, etc.
Performance-to-outcome expectancy: An individual's perceived probability that a specific behaviour or performance level will lead to specific outcomes.
Physiological needs: the most important level of needs. These fundamental requirements include food, rest, shelter, and exercise.
Positive reinforcement: occurs when a desirable event or stimulusis presented as a consequence of a behavior and the chance that this behavior will manifest in similar environments increases.
Priming: a phenomenon, often used as an experimental technique, whereby a specific stimulus sensitizes the subject to later presentation of a similar stimulus. Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli, resulting from prior exposure to related visual or audio messages.
Procrastination: the act to voluntarily postpone or delay an intended course of action despite anticipating that you will be worse off because of that delay. Procrastination can be seen as a defense mechanism. Because it is less demanding to simply avoid a task instead of dealing with the possibility of failure, procrastinators choose the short-term gratification of delaying a task over the long-term uncertainty of undertaking it. Procrastination can also be a justification for when the user ultimately has no choice but to undertake a task and performs below their standard.
Procrastinator Types: The first are chronic procrastinators whom exhibit a combination of qualities. "Arousal" types are self-proclaimed "pressure performers" and relish the exhilaration of completing tasks close to the deadline. "Avoider" types procrastinate to avoid the outcome of whatever task they are pushing back - whether it be a potential failure or success. "Avoider" types are usually very self-conscious and care deeply about other people's opinions. Finally, "Decisional" procrastinators avoid making decisions in order to protect themselves from the responsibility that follows the outcome of events
Primary reinforcer: sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing with a different stimulusin order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival.
Pull motivation: is the opposite of push. It is a type of motivation that is much stronger. Some of the factors are those that emerge as a result of the attractiveness of a destination as it is perceived by those with the propensity to travel.
Push motivations: are those who push themselves towards their goals or to achieve something, such as the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige, health and fitness, adventure, and social interaction.
Reinforcers: serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end.
Relatedness needs: A person's need to interact with other people, receive public recognition, and feel secure around people
Safety needs: include “protection against danger, threat, deprivation.”
Satisfaction-progression process: A process whereby people become increasingly motivated to fulfil a higher need as a lower need is gratified.
Secondary reinforcer: sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulusthat functions as a reinforcer.
Secondary motives: related to people’s general growth after a learning experience. They develop through the interaction between individuals. Just like primary motives, they activate and direct behavior. They aren’t necessary for human survival, but they play an important role in emotional development and are unique to human beings. Achievement, belonging, and power are examples of secondary motives.
Self-fulfillment needs: recognition of one's full potential, areas for self-improvement, and the opportunity for creativity.
Self-efficacy: A person's belief that he or she has the ability, motivation, and resources to complete a task successfully.
Sixteen basic desires: these desires motivate our actions and define our personalities:
- Acceptance, the need for approval
- Curiosity, the need to learn
- Eating, the need for food
- Family, the need to raise children
- Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group
- Idealism, the need for social justice
- Independence, the need for individuality
- Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments
- Physical activity, the need for exercise
- Power, the need for influence of will
- Romance, the need for sex and for beauty
- Saving, the need to collect
- Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
- Social status, the need for social standing/importance
- Tranquility, the need to be safe
- Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete
Social-Cognitive Theory: Theory that discusses the social effects on behavior.
Social needs: refers to the desire for acceptance, affiliation, reciprocal friendships and love.
Temporal Motivation Theory: a broad, integrative theory of motivation that is composed of other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory, Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting.
Valence: The anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels towards an outcome.
Value: The importance an individual places on learning.
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View Me on Twitter @kairosoflife
See Creativity Chaos - a Creativity Blog by Kai
About | Reprints & Copyrights | Home
© 2019-2020 Copyright Starlight Poetry
VIEW FULL SITE DIRECTORY